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Pantanal

Coordinates: 17°24′S 57°30′W / 17.400°S 57.500°W / -17.400; -57.500
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Pantanal (disambiguation).
Pantanal
Typical Pantanal scenery
Map of the Pantanal ecoregion
Ecology
RealmNeotropical
BiomeFlooded grasslands and savannas
Geography
Area195,000 km2 (75,000 sq mi)
Countries
Conservation
Global 200Pantanal flooded savannas
LocationBrazil, Bolivia, Paraguay
CriteriaNatural: (vii), (ix), (x)
Reference999
Inscription2000 (24th Session)
Area187,818 km2 (72,517 sq mi)
Coordinates17°24′S 57°30′W / 17.400°S 57.500°W / -17.400; -57.500
Official namePantanal Matogrossense
Designated24 May 1993
Reference no.602[1]
Official nameEl Pantanal Boliviano
Designated17 September 2001
Reference no.1089[2]
Pantanal is located in Brazil
Pantanal
Location of Pantanal in Brazil
Pantanal is located in South America
Pantanal
Pantanal (South America)

The Pantanal (Portuguese pronunciation: [pɐ̃taˈnaw]) is a natural region encompassing the world's largest tropical wetland area, and the world's largest flooded grasslands. It is located mostly within the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul, but it extends into Mato Grosso and portions of Bolivia and Paraguay. It sprawls over an area estimated at between 140,000 and 195,000 km2 (54,000 and 75,000 sq mi). Various subregional ecosystems exist, each with distinct hydrological, geological, and ecological characteristics; up to 12 of them have been defined.[3][4][5][6][7]

Roughly 80% of the Pantanal floodplains are submerged during the rainy seasons, nurturing a biologically diverse collection of aquatic plants and helping to support a dense array of animal species.

Etymology

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The name "Pantanal" comes from the Portuguese word pântano that means "swamp", "wetland", "bog", "quagmire", or "marsh" plus the suffix -al, that means "abundance, agglomeration, collection".[citation needed]

Geography and geology

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The Pantanal covers about 140,000–160,000 km2 (54,000–62,000 sq mi)[8][9] of gently-sloped basin that receives runoff from the upland areas (the Planalto highlands) and slowly releases the water through the Paraguay River and tributaries. The formation is a result of the large, concave, pre-Andean depression of the Earth's crust, related to the Andean orogeny of the Tertiary. It constitutes an enormous internal river delta, in which several rivers flowing from the surrounding plateau merge, depositing their sediments and erosion residues, which have been filling the large depression area of the Pantanal. This area is also one of the distinct physiographic provinces of the larger Parana-Paraguay Plain area, which encompasses a total of 1.5×10^6 km2 (580,000 sq mi).[10]

The Pantanal is bounded by the Chiquitano dry forests to the west and northwest, by the Arid Chaco dry forests to the southwest, and the Humid Chaco to the south. The Cerrado savannas lie to the north, east, and southeast.

Climate

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The Pantanal is a tropical wet and dry region with an average annual temperature of 24 °C (75 °F) and rainfall between 1,000 and 1,250 millimetres (39 and 49 in) per year. Extreme temperatures can reach a high of 41 °C (106 °F) or drop to −1 °C (30 °F).[9] Throughout the year, temperature varies about 6.0 °C (10.8 °F) with the warmest month being November (with an average temperature of 26 °C or 79 °F) and the coldest month being June (with an average temperature of 20 °C or 68 °F). Its wettest month is January (with an average of 340 mm or 13 in) and its driest is June (with an average of 3 mm or 0.12 in).[citation needed]

Hydrodynamics

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Landscape

Floodplain ecosystems such as the Pantanal are defined by their seasonal inundation and desiccation.[3] They shift between phases of standing water and phases of dry soil, when the water table can be well below the root region.[3] Soils range from high levels of sand in higher areas to higher amounts of clay and silt in riverine areas.

Elevation of the Pantanal ranges from 80 to 150 m (260 to 490 ft) above sea level.[3] Annual rainfall over the flood basin is between 1,000 and 1,500 mm (39 and 59 in), with most rainfall occurring between November and March.[3] Annual average precipitation ranged from 920 to 1,540 mm in the years 1968-2000.[9] In the Paraguay River portion of the Pantanal, water levels rise between two meters to five meters seasonally; water fluctuations in other parts of the Pantanal are less than this.[3] Flood waters tend to flow slowly (2 to 10 cm (0.79 to 3.94 in) per second[3]) due to the low gradients and high resistance offered by the dense vegetation.

When rising river waters first contact previously dry soil, the waters become oxygen-depleted, rendering the water environs anoxic.[3] Many natural fish kills can occur if there are no oxygenated water refuges available. The reason for this remains speculative: it may be due to the growth of toxin-producing bacteria in the deoxygenated water rather than as a direct result of lack of oxygen.[3]

Flora

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Main article: List of plants of Pantanal vegetation of Brazil

The vegetation of the Pantanal, often referred to as the "Pantanal complex", is a mixture of plant communities typical of a variety of surrounding biome regions: these include moist tropical Amazonian rainforest plants, semiarid woodland plants typical of northeast Brazil, Brazilian cerrado savanna plants, and plants of the Chaco savannas of Bolivia and Paraguay.[3] Forests usually occur at higher altitudes of the region, while grasslands cover the seasonally inundated areas. The key limiting factors for growth are inundation and, even more importantly, water-stress during the dry season.[3]

According to Embrapa, approximately 2,000 different plants have been identified in the Pantanal biome and classified according to their potential, with some presenting significant medicinal promise.[11]

Fauna

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The Pantanal ecosystem is home to some 463 species of birds,[5] 269 species of fishes, more than 236 species of mammals,[12] 141 species of reptiles and amphibians, and over 9,000 subspecies of invertebrates.

The apple snail (Pomacea lineata) is a keystone species in Pantanal's ecosystem. When the wetlands are flooded once a year, the grass and other plants will eventually die and start to decay. During this process, decomposing microbes deplete the shallow water of all oxygen, suffocating larger decomposers. Unlike other decomposing animals, the apple snails have both gills and lungs, making it possible for them to thrive in anoxic waters where they recycle the nutrients. To get oxygen, they extend a long snorkel to the water surface, pumping air into their lungs. This ability allows them to consume all the dead plant matter and turn it into nutritious fertilizer available for the plants in the area. The snails themselves are also food for a variety of animals.[13][14][15]

Among the rarest animals to inhabit the wetland of the Pantanal are the marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus) and the giant river otter (Pteronura brasiliensis). Parts of the Pantanal are also home to the following endangered or threatened species: the hyacinth macaw (Anodorhyncus hyacinthinus) (a bird endangered due to smuggling), the crowned solitary eagle (Buteogallus coronatus), the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), the bush dog (Speothos venaticus), the South American tapir (Tapirus terrestris), and the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla). Common species in the Pantanal include the capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), and the yacare caiman (Caiman yacare). According to 1996 data, there were 10 million caimans in the Pantanal, making it the highest concentration of crocodilians in the world.[16] The Pantanal is home to one of the largest and healthiest jaguar (Panthera onca) populations on Earth.[17]

There are thirteen species of herons and egrets, six species of ibises and spoonbills, and five species of kingfishers that use the Pantanal as a breeding and feeding ground. There are nineteen species of parrots documented in the Pantanal, including five species of macaws. Some migratory birds include the American golden plover, peregrine falcon, and the bobolink.[18]

Most fish are detritivores, primarily ingesting fine particles from sediments and plant surfaces.[3] This is characteristic of fish living in South American flood-plains in general. Fish migration between river channels and flood-plain regions occurs seasonally.[3] These fish have many adaptations that allow them to survive in the oxygen-depleted flood-plain waters.[3]

In addition to the caiman, some of the reptiles that inhabit the Pantanal are the yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus), the gold tegu (Tupinambis teguixin), the red-footed tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria), and the green iguana (Iguana iguana).

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Threats

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The Pantanal region includes essential sanctuaries for migratory birds, critical nursery grounds for aquatic life, and refuges for such creatures as the yacare caiman, deer, and Pantanal jaguar.[19] Most species are not under threat due to the low deforestation rates (less than 17%) of native vegetation now in the area due to new regulations.[20]

Some of the causes which threaten the Pantanal ecosystems are:

  • Fishing
    • Commercial fishing is focused on only a few species and is probably not sustainable.[21] National and international sport fishing in the Paraguay river and its tributaries are the main focus for fishing activities.[21] Local fishing communities have been under close watch by environmentalists as well.[20]
  • Cattle-ranching:
    • Approximately 99% of the land in the Pantanal is privately owned for the purpose of agriculture and ranching, even though there are some regulations on available land based on the extent of flooding during each wet season.[22][9]
    • There are 2500 fazendas in the region and up to eight million cattle.[23]
    • Erosion and sedimentation caused by this activity alter the soil and hydrological characteristics of Pantanal flood-plain ecosystems; consequently, native species are threatened by the change in ecosystem variables.[22]
  • Hunting, poaching, and smuggling of endangered species:[24] Reptile, wildcat, and parrot species are particularly at risk from the smuggling industry due to their high value on the black market.
  • Uncontrolled tourism and overuse of natural resources
  • Deforestation
    • Establishment of logging companies during political turmoils in the region resulted in peak deforestation rates between 1978-1989. Many livelihoods were dependent on harvesting rubber trees as new waves of migrants arrived, resulting in what is now there today.[20]
    • Silt run-off from deforested highlands alters soil hydrology and is a significant threat to the Pantanal.[19]
  • Pollution from gold mining operations and agro-industry[22]
    • The Pantanal is a natural water treatment system as it removes chemicals, including pollutants, from water. Pollution from industrial development (especially gold mining) can harm native flora and fauna.
    • However, water quality in the Pantanal was not significantly degraded as of 2002.[21]
  • Pollution from sewage systems and pesticides[24]
    • Movement to large-scale agriculture of food crops, mainly soy-beans, has adopted the use of large quantities of chemical pesticides and fertilizers which leach into the soil or run-off to the flood plains of the Pantanal.[18]
  • Infrastructure development (shipping canals, raised roads, pipelines)[22]
    • The proposed plan to dredge the Paraguay and Paraná Rivers to allow oceangoing ships to travel 3,442 km (2,139 mi) inland is of particular concern and could affect the hydrology (flooding and drainage cycles) of the region, and therefore impact the ecosystem.[24][25]
  • Forest Fires
    • In late 2020, a quarter of the wetland was destroyed by an unprecedented fire attributed to climate change. An area estimated of about 19,890 square kilometres (7,681 sq mi) was razed by the fire, killing millions of vertebrates.[26] Experts say 2020 was the most active year on record for wildfires.[27] Until November 2020, Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (INPE) had detected more than 21,200 fires in the Pantanal biome, a figure that is 69% higher than 2005, when the INPE recorded roughly 12,500 fires. There were 8,106 fires in September 2020 alone—more than four times the historic average for the month.[28]
  • Climate change
    • Current predictive climate models indicate a progressive increase in the frequency of extreme events (for example, extreme rainfalls and extended droughts). These events could affect the Pantanal´s ecosystem functioning, amplifying and worsening human modifications of hydrological and environmental conditions in the basin.[29]

Protected areas

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Hotel SESC Porto Cercado in the SESC Reserve
Main article: Otuquis National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area

A portion of the Pantanal in Brazil has been protected as the Pantanal Matogrossense National Park. This 1,350 km2 (520 sq mi) park, established in September 1981, is located in the municipality of Poconé in the State of Mato Grosso, between the mouths of the Baía de São Marcos and the Gurupi Rivers. The park was designated a Ramsar Site of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention on May 24, 1993.

The SESC Pantanal Private Natural Heritage Reserve (Reserva Particular do Patrimonio Natural SESC Pantanal) is a privately owned reserve in Brazil, established in 1998 and 878.7 km2 (339.3 sq mi) in size. It is located in the north-eastern portion, known as "Poconé" Pantanal, not far from the Pantanal National Park. It is a mix of permanent rivers, seasonal streams, permanent and seasonal floodplain freshwater lakes, shrub-dominated wetlands and seasonally flooded forests, all dedicated to nature preservation, and was designated a Ramsar Site of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention.

Otuquis National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area is a national park of Bolivia in the Pantanal. The entrance to Otuquis National park is through the town of Puerto Suarez.

Indigenous Communities in the Pantanal Region

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1. Indigenous Communities in the Pantanal

The Pantanal is a vast tropical wetland primarily located in Brazil, extending into Bolivia and Paraguay. It is home to a rich diversity of indigenous peoples, who maintain a deep connection to the land, water, and ecosystems of the region. Notable indigenous groups in the Pantanal include the Bororo, Guató, Kadiwéu, Terena, and Kinikinau, each with unique cultural practices, languages, and histories.

Main Communities

  • Bororo: One of the largest indigenous groups in the Pantanal, the Bororo live primarily in the state of Mato Grosso. Historically semi-nomadic, the Bororo people have a strong cultural heritage with significant spiritual beliefs and communal organization.
  • Guató: Residing mainly along the Paraguay River, the Guató people are known for their deep connection to water, which is central to their culture and livelihoods. Their fishing practices are a key component of their economy and traditions.
  • Kadiwéu: Located in the southern Pantanal, the Kadiwéu are known for their farming and pastoralist practices, especially cattle herding. They have distinct cultural traditions and a strong sense of community identity.
  • Terena: The Terena primarily inhabit the central Pantanal. They have worked to preserve their land and culture and are involved in political and social movements advocating for indigenous rights.
  • Kinikinau: A subgroup of the Terena, the Kinikinau maintain a rich cultural heritage, including their language and traditional crafts.

Historical Background

Indigenous peoples have inhabited the Pantanal for thousands of years, long before the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century. These communities adapted to the unique ecosystem of the region, which allowed them to develop distinct ways of life. The Pantanal’s environment, with its seasonal flooding and diverse flora and fauna, played a crucial role in shaping their cultures.

Impact of Colonization and Modern Development

The arrival of European settlers had a profound impact on indigenous communities in the Pantanal. The introduction of new diseases, agricultural practices, and cattle ranching led to the displacement and decline of many indigenous populations. The encroachment of agriculture and modern development, including deforestation and pollution of the region’s waterways, continues to threaten the survival of indigenous cultures in the Pantanal. These external pressures challenge the ability of indigenous groups to maintain their traditional ways of life.

2. Culture and Traditions

Indigenous communities in the Pantanal have developed cultures that are deeply intertwined with the natural environment. Their traditions reflect an understanding of the land, water, and biodiversity, and their ethical commitment to living sustainably within these systems.

Social Structure and Governance

Indigenous communities in the Pantanal often organize themselves around hierarchical structures that emphasize wisdom, spiritual knowledge, and experience. Leadership within these communities is not necessarily based on political power but on the capacity to lead by example, particularly in spiritual and social matters.

For example, the Bororo[30] have a complex social structure, with leaders chosen for their spiritual authority and ability to mediate disputes. Their leaders play a vital role in maintaining the balance between the natural and spiritual worlds. Similarly, among the Guató[31] and Kadiwéu[32], spiritual leaders help guide the community in its relationship with the environment, which is considered sacred.

Language and Communication

Language is an essential element of cultural identity for indigenous peoples in the Pantanal. Each group speaks its own language, often belonging to larger linguistic families like Tupi-Guarani and Mato Grosso. The Bororo language, for instance, is central to the community’s cultural identity, preserving knowledge, history, and spiritual beliefs.

However, many indigenous languages in the region face the threat of extinction due to the dominance of Portuguese and the pressures of modernization. Efforts to preserve and revitalize indigenous languages are ongoing in many communities, with programs designed to teach younger generations their native languages and cultural practices.

In addition to spoken language, indigenous communities in the Pantanal use non-verbal forms of communication, such as storytelling, music, and dance, to pass on important cultural and spiritual knowledge. Storytelling is particularly important among the Guató, who share stories that link their community to the land, animals, and spirits.

Traditional Practices and Livelihoods

The traditional livelihoods of the Pantanal's indigenous peoples are closely tied to the region’s ecology. Communities such as the Guató and Kadiwéu have developed specialized techniques for fishing, hunting, and farming that allow them to live in harmony with the seasonal rhythms of the land.

The Guató, for example, are expert fishermen and have developed techniques that adapt to the seasonal flooding and shifting waters of the Pantanal. These practices ensure sustainable fishing, which is a key part of their economy.

For the Kadiwéu, a mix of agriculture and cattle herding is central to their way of life. They grow crops like manioc, maize, and beans, using farming methods adapted to the floodplain environment. Their practices are in harmony with the region's seasonal floods, which shape the local landscape and agricultural activities.

Crafts such as weaving and pottery are also important aspects of traditional livelihoods. These crafts are not only sources of income but also integral to the transmission of cultural knowledge and spiritual values.

Cultural Expressions: Art, Music, and Dance

Art, music, and dance are vital forms of cultural expression in the Pantanal, reflecting the deep spiritual and social connections that indigenous peoples have with their environment. The Bororo, for example, are known for their body painting and ceremonial masks, which are used in rituals to honor spirits and ancestors. These artistic practices are an essential part of their spiritual and community life.

Music and dance also play key roles in ceremonies and celebrations. Traditional songs and dances, often performed during important rituals or life events, reinforce social ties and spiritual beliefs. The Kadiwéu, for example, perform intricate dances accompanied by traditional instruments like flutes and drums during their ceremonies, which help to maintain their cultural identity and unity.

3. Challenges Faced by Indigenous Communities

Indigenous communities in the Pantanal face a range of challenges that threaten their traditional ways of life and cultural heritage. These challenges are interconnected and stem from external pressures such as economic development, legal shortcomings, and climate change. Despite their long history in the region, these communities are grappling with forces that undermine their cultural identity, livelihoods, and land rights.

Environmental Challenges

One of the most significant environmental issues affecting indigenous communities in the Pantanal is the degradation of the region’s delicate ecosystem. The Pantanal is experiencing severe impacts from deforestation, agricultural expansion, and industrial activities such as livestock grazing and monoculture farming. The expansion of these industries is draining wetlands, disrupting habitats for wildlife and undermining the traditional fishing practices that many indigenous communities depend on. This loss of biodiversity has profound effects on the livelihoods of indigenous peoples, whose ways of life are closely tied to the land and its natural resources.

Additionally, climate change has exacerbated these environmental threats. Changes in rainfall patterns, more frequent droughts, and extreme weather events have made the region increasingly vulnerable. These altered conditions disrupt the seasonal flooding and dry periods essential for indigenous agricultural practices and fishing activities. The unpredictability of the environment, including water scarcity, crop failures, and reduced fish availability, further jeopardizes the livelihoods and cultural practices of these communities, which rely on the rhythms of nature.

Economic Pressures and Land Rights Issues

Economic pressures, particularly concerning land rights, are another major challenge facing indigenous communities in the Pantanal. Many territories traditionally inhabited by indigenous peoples are being encroached upon by agribusinesses, mining operations, and logging companies. These industries, driven by economic incentives, often overlook or violate the land rights of indigenous peoples, leading to the displacement of communities and the loss of ancestral territories. These lands are vital not only for the survival of the communities but also for the preservation of their cultural identity.

Despite constitutional protections for indigenous lands in Brazil, these rights are often disregarded or inadequately enforced. Government authorities frequently fail to uphold land rights, leaving indigenous groups vulnerable to land grabs by external economic interests. Indigenous communities are forced to endure displacement, economic instability, and the destruction of their homes. Moreover, a lack of access to legal resources and insufficient state support in protecting their land rights exacerbate their marginalization, perpetuating a cycle of dispossession.

Government Policies and Legal Status

Brazil has made some progress in recognizing indigenous rights, particularly through the 1988 Constitution, which guarantees indigenous peoples the right to their lands and the preservation of their culture. However, the implementation of these legal protections is often inconsistent and insufficient. Indigenous communities frequently face significant bureaucratic hurdles when asserting their rights, and legal recourse can be slow or inaccessible. This gap in enforcement leaves communities vulnerable to encroachment and exploitation by outside interests.

Additionally, government policies often fail to address the specific needs of indigenous communities, especially in terms of access to essential services like healthcare and education. Many indigenous territories suffer from inadequate infrastructure, limiting access to medical care and educational resources. In some remote areas of the Pantanal, indigenous peoples must travel long distances to reach healthcare services, which can be a significant burden. Similarly, the education system often fails to meet the cultural and linguistic needs of indigenous students, putting them at a disadvantage in a modern, globalized society.

4. Efforts for Recognition and Rights

Indigenous advocacy groups and movements play a crucial role in raising awareness of these challenges and promoting the rights of indigenous peoples in the Pantanal. Organizations like the Articulação dos Povos Indígenas do Brasil (APIB) and various regional groups work to amplify the political voice of indigenous communities. These organizations advocate for the recognition of land rights, environmental protection, and the preservation of cultural practices.

Current Legal Frameworks Protecting Indigenous Rights

Brazil's legal framework includes significant protections for indigenous peoples, particularly through the 1988 Brazilian Constitution, which recognizes their rights to traditional lands and cultural preservation. However, while these protections are enshrined in law, their enforcement is often inadequate. Indigenous territories are vulnerable to encroachment, and the legal process for defending these rights can be slow and complex. As a result, indigenous groups frequently face challenges in maintaining control over their ancestral lands.

Collaboration with NGOs and International Organizations

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international organizations play a vital role in supporting indigenous communities through a range of initiatives. These include providing legal aid, promoting environmental conservation, and assisting with cultural preservation projects. FUNAI (Fundação Nacional do Índio) and other NGOs work to protect indigenous land rights and support sustainable development projects that align with the needs and traditions of local communities. These collaborations help to strengthen indigenous communities' capacity to resist external pressures and advocate for their rights at national and international levels.

Main cities

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Brazil:

Bolivia:

Paraguay:

In fiction

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  • Pantanal appears as a natural wonder in the strategy game Civilization VI.
  • John Grisham's novel The Testament largely takes place in the Pantanal.
  • Pantanal is the title of a Brazilian-produced telenovela whose setting is the Brazilian Pantanal.
  • The Jack McKinney Robotech novel Before the Invid Storm makes reference to former soldiers of the Army of the Southern Cross called the Pantanal Brigade by the character Major Alice Harper Argus.
  • The Twilight Saga: The Amazon Coven: "The Amazon coven consists of three sisters, Kachiri, Zafrina, and Senna, all natives of the Pantanal wetlands."[33]
  • Pantanal makes an appearance in Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Wildlands as a region called Caimanes.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Pantanal Matogrossense". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
  2. ^ "El Pantanal Boliviano". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n McClain, Michael E. (2002). The Ecohydrology of South American Rivers and Wetlands. International Association of Hydrological Sciences. ISBN 1-901502-02-3. Retrieved 2008-08-31.
  4. ^ Susan Mcgrath, photos by Joel Sartore (August 2005) "Brazil's Wild Wet", National Geographic Magazine.
  5. ^ a b Keddy, Paul; Fraser, Lauchlan (2005). The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2008-08-31.
  6. ^ Butler, Rhett A. (January 10, 2006). "Pantanal, the world's largest wetland, disappearing finds new report". mongabay.com. Retrieved 2006-01-10.
  7. ^ "The World's largest wetland". The Nature Conservancy. Archived from the original on 2008-01-23. Retrieved 2008-01-21.
  8. ^ Keddy, Paul A.; Fraser, Lauchlan H.; Solomeshch, Ayzik I.; Junk, Wolfgang J.; Campbell, Daniel R.; Arroyo, Mary T. K.; Alho, Cleber J. R. (January 2009). "Wet and Wonderful: The World's Largest Wetlands Are Conservation Priorities". BioScience. 59 (1): 39–51. doi:10.1525/bio.2009.59.1.8. ISSN 1525-3244. S2CID 53536143.
  9. ^ a b c d Marengo, Jose A.; Oliveira, Gilvan S.; Alves, Lincoln M. (2015), Bergier, Ivan; Assine, Mario Luis (eds.), "Climate Change Scenarios in the Pantanal", Dynamics of the Pantanal Wetland in South America, vol. 37, Springer International Publishing, pp. 227–238, doi:10.1007/698_2015_357, ISBN 9783319187341
  10. ^ "AQUASTAT - FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2019-10-09.
  11. ^ Ministério do Meio Ambiente. "Pantanal". www.mma.gov.br (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2019-06-14.
  12. ^ Junk, Wolfgang J.; Brown, Mark; Campbell, Ian C.; Finlayson, Max; Gopal, Brij; Ramberg, Lars; Warner, Barry G. (September 29, 2006). "The comparative biodiversity of seven globally important wetlands: a synthesis". Aquatic Sciences. 68 (3): 400–414. Bibcode:2006AqSci..68..400J. doi:10.1007/s00027-006-0856-z. ISSN 1015-1621. S2CID 24369809.
  13. ^ Fellerhoff, C. (2002). "Feeding and growth of apple snail Pomacea lineata in the Pantanal wetland, Brazil--a stable isotope approach". Isotopes Environ Health Stud. 38 (4): 227–43. Bibcode:2002IEHS...38..227F. doi:10.1080/10256010208033268. PMID 12725426. S2CID 204150084.
  14. ^ "Apple Snail: Unlikely Hero of the Pantanal". Nature Box. Archived from the original on 2016-06-01. Retrieved 2016-09-09.
  15. ^ "Secrets of our Living Planet, Waterworlds, Enter the apple snail". BBC Two. July 1, 2012. Retrieved 2016-09-09.
  16. ^ Swarts, Frederick A. (2000). The Pantanal of Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia: Selected Discourses on the World's Largest Remaining Wetland System: Selected Papers and Addresses from the World Conference on Preservation and Sustainable Development in the Pantanal. Hudson MacArthur Publishers. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-9675946-0-6.
  17. ^ "Restoring the jaguar corridor". World Wildlife Foundation. 2021. Retrieved 2024-01-29.
  18. ^ a b Alho, Cleber J. R.; Vieira, Luiz M. (1997). "Fish and wildlife resources in the Pantanal wetlands of Brazil and potential disturbances from the release of environmental contaminants". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 16 (1): 71–74. doi:10.1002/etc.5620160107. ISSN 1552-8618.
  19. ^ a b Willink, Philip W. (2000). A Biological Assessment of the Aquatic Ecosystems of the Pantanal. The University of Texas. ISBN 9781881173359. Retrieved 2008-08-31.
  20. ^ a b c Chiaravalloti, Rafael Morais (2019). "The Displacement of Insufficiently 'Traditional' Communities: Local Fisheries in the Pantanal". Conservation & Society. 17 (2): 173–183. doi:10.4103/cs.cs_18_58. ISSN 0972-4923. JSTOR 26611743.
  21. ^ a b c McClain, Michael E. (2002). The Ecohydrology of South American Rivers and Wetlands. International Association of Hydrological Sciences. ISBN 1-901502-02-3. Retrieved 2008-08-31.
  22. ^ a b c d Brendle, Anna (January 10, 2003). "Behind Threats to World's Largest Freshwater Wetland". National Geographic News. pp. 1–2. Archived from the original on 2003-01-18. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  23. ^ Araras Eco Lodge. "Pantanal - Brazil's undiscovered wilderness". Ladatco Tours. Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  24. ^ a b c "Pantanal". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  25. ^ Gunther, Michel. "The Threats of Dams and Navigation Infrastructure on La Plata". 10 Rivers most at Risk. WWF. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  26. ^ Tomas, Walfrido Moraes; Berlinck, Christian Niel; Chiaravalloti, Rafael Morais; Faggioni, Gabriel Paganini; Strüssmann, Christine; Libonati, Renata; Abrahão, Carlos Roberto; do Valle Alvarenga, Gabriela; de Faria Bacellar, Ana Elisa; de Queiroz Batista, Flávia Regina; Bornato, Thainan Silva (December 16, 2021). "Distance sampling surveys reveal 17 million vertebrates directly killed by the 2020's wildfires in the Pantanal, Brazil". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 23547. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1123547T. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-02844-5. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8677733. PMID 34916541.
  27. ^ Arréllaga, Maria Magdalena; Londoño, Ernesto; Casado, Letícia (September 4, 2020). "Brazil Fires Burn World's Largest Tropical Wetlands at 'Unprecedented' Scale". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-10-18.
  28. ^ Ivana Kottasová, Henrik Pettersson and Krystina Shveda (November 13, 2020). "The world's largest wetlands are on fire. That's a disaster for all of us". CNN. Retrieved 2020-11-19.
  29. ^ Thielen, Dirk; Schuchmann, Karl-Ludwig; Ramoni-Perazzi, Paolo; Marquez, Marco; Rojas, Wilmer; Quintero, Jose Isrrael; Marques, Marinêz Isaac (January 7, 2020). "Quo vadis Pantanal? Expected precipitation extremes and drought dynamics from changing sea surface temperature". PLOS ONE. 15 (1): e0227437. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1527437T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227437. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6946591. PMID 31910441.
  30. ^ "Boe (Bororo) - Povos Indígenas no Brasil". pib.socioambiental.org. Retrieved 2024-12-04.
  31. ^ "Guató - Povos Indígenas no Brasil". pib.socioambiental.org. Retrieved 2024-12-04.
  32. ^ "Kadiwéu - Povos Indígenas no Brasil". pib.socioambiental.org. Retrieved 2024-12-04.
  33. ^ The Twilight Saga: The Official Illustrated Guide p. 185.
[edit]
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Pantanal.
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Pantanal (category)
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